Museo: Pantheon

Introduction to the Roman Pantheon

Welcome to the Pantheon, a silent witness to nearly two thousand years of Roman history. We are before one of the most extraordinary monuments of antiquity, a building that represents the pinnacle of Roman engineering and architecture. The word Pantheon comes from Greek and means "temple of all the gods," reflecting its original religious purpose. It was built by Emperor Hadrian between 118 and 125 A.D, replacing an earlier temple erected by Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius and consul for the third time, who commissioned its construction as we can still read on the pediment. During our journey, we will explore how this sacred space has transformed through the centuries, evolving from a pagan temple dedicated to all the gods into a Christian basilica dedicated to Saint Mary at the Martyrs in 609 A.D. This conversion, initiated by Pope Boniface IV, paradoxically contributed to its preservation, allowing us to admire it today in nearly its original form. The Pantheon epitomizes geometric perfection: its hemispherical dome, featuring a centrally placed oculus open to the sky, creates an enduring dialogue between the earth and the heavens, between the human and the divine.

Function and Symbolism of the Ancient Pantheon

We are now standing before one of the most extraordinary examples of religious continuity in the history of humanity. The Pantheon, whose name derives from the Greek pan (all) and theon (divine), was originally conceived as a temple dedicated to all the deities of the Roman pantheon. Commissioned by Marcus Agrippa in 27 B.C. and rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian around 126 A.D., this building represented the culmination of pagan religious architecture. Its niches housed the statues of the main gods: Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and other deities entrusted with the protection of Rome and its empire. The perfect harmony of the structure, with its hemispherical dome symbolizing the celestial vault, created a tangible link between the earthly realm and the divine. In 609 A.D., a momentous transformation occurred: the Byzantine Emperor Phocas gifted the building to Pope Boniface IV, who consecrated it as a Christian church dedicated to Saint Mary and the Martyrs. This transition involved no destruction but rather a reinterpretation: the temple of all gods became the house of the one Christian God. The niches that once held pagan deities came to house Christian altars and relics of martyrs. This religious metamorphosis is likely the main reason for the building's extraordinary preservation through the centuries. Observing the interior, we can still perceive this dual nature: the Roman pagan architecture that exalts the mathematical perfection of the cosmos coexists harmoniously with Christian elements like the central altar and the side chapels. Thus, the Pantheon stands as a rare example of spiritual continuity, where humanity's quest for the divine has found expression in diverse yet equally powerful forms.

Rotonda Square

We have arrived at Piazza della Rotonda, one of Rome's most enchanting squares, serving as the perfect stage to contemplate the majestic façade of the Pantheon. The name of the square itself is derived from the circular shape of the temple, which dominates the space with its imposing presence. In Roman times, the surrounding area was quite different: more cramped, at a lower level, and filled with buildings adjoining the temple. It was only in the fifteenth century, at the behest of Pope Eugene IV, that the medieval structures were demolished to grant the monument the breathing space it deserved. In the center of the square, admire the sixteenth-century fountain designed by Giacomo Della Porta in 1575. Later, in 1711, architect Filippo Barigioni added a surprising element: the Egyptian obelisk of Ramses II, originating from the temple of Ra in Heliopolis. This vertical thrust creates a perfect visual counterpoint with the horizontality of the square and the solemnity of the Pantheon's façade. From this privileged vantage point, you can enjoy the most harmonious view of the portico with its Corinthian columns and triangular pediment.

The Pronaos

Let us now pause to admire the pronaos, the monumental vestibule that precedes the entrance to the Pantheon. This majestic portico, 15 meters deep and 33 meters wide, is one of the most extraordinary façades of ancient Rome. The sixteen Corinthian columns supporting it—eight at the front and two rows of four on the sides—hail from Egypt and were transported to Rome in one of the greatest logistical feats of the ancient world. They are monolithic columns, crafted from granite, with the front ones in pink and the side ones in gray. Look up at the triangular pediment: it once housed a bronze eagle, the symbol of Jupiter, surrounded by decorations that have since disappeared. Below, the inscription on the frieze reads: "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, thrice consul, built this." It is a tribute to the original temple from 27 BC, now lost, that Hadrian chose to commemorate in the new building constructed between AD 118 and 125. The pronaos serves a precise symbolic function: it acts as a filter between the chaotic world of the city and the sacred space of the rotunda. It represents the transition from the human to the divine, from the earthly to the universal.

The Monumental Bronze Door

Before you lies one of the oldest doors still in operation in the world: the monumental bronze door of the Pantheon. Standing nearly 7 meters tall, this marvel dates back to the 2nd century A.D. and was crafted during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. Even today, almost two thousand years later, the door's panels move with surprising ease, thanks to a hinge system that bears witness to the engineering prowess of the Romans. Observe the details, though worn by time: the frames, the rivets, and the minimal decorations speak of a refined and functional metallurgical art. Interestingly, the door is slightly smaller than the opening it fits into: this discrepancy is the result of a later modification dating back to the 7th century when the Pantheon was converted into a Christian church. Crossing this threshold means performing a symbolic gesture: leaving the external world and entering a space where geometry and spirituality merge.

The Dome of the Pantheon

Raise your gaze. In front of your eyes opens one of the most extraordinary feats of engineering ever created: the dome of the Pantheon. With a diameter of 43.3 meters, this unreinforced concrete dome is still the largest of its kind in the world today. Its construction is a masterpiece of balance, lightness, and vision. The Romans adopted a remarkable technique: the concrete used becomes progressively lighter as it rises. At the base, heavy stone is found, while in the upper part, porous materials such as pumice were used. The coffers that adorn the interior are not merely ornamental but lighten the structure and contribute to its stability. At the center, a 9-meter opening—the oculus—allows natural light to enter and establishes a direct connection between the interior space and the sky. The oculus has no glass or cover: it is always open. The rain that enters is collected by a sophisticated drainage system in the floor, invisible but efficient. The light entering from above moves along the walls like a natural sundial, marking the hours of the day. This perfect dome could inscribe a complete sphere within the rotunda.

The Floor of the Pantheon

Beneath our feet stretches the original floor of the Pantheon, dating back to the time of Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD. It is one of the few elements that have come down to us almost intact from antiquity. Look at it closely: a refined geometric design alternates circles, squares, and rectangles, crafted with colored marbles sourced from every corner of the Empire. Nothing is left to chance: the harmony of these shapes reflects the same mathematical perfection governing the entire architecture of the Pantheon. If you follow the geometries with your gaze, you'll notice how everything converges towards the center of the rotunda, exactly where the beam of light from the oculus strikes the ground.

The Apse of the Pantheon

We are now in the apse, one of the most significant elements for understanding the transformation of the Pantheon into a Christian church. This semicircular structure was not part of Hadrian's original design. It was added in the 7th century when the temple was donated by Phocas to Pope Boniface IV and consecrated to Saint Mary of the Martyrs. Located opposite the entrance, the apse symbolically replaced the imperial statue that probably once occupied this position. Its semicircular shape alludes to the celestial vault and directs the gaze towards the altar, becoming the spiritual center of Christian liturgy. Although it disrupted the original symmetry of the building, the apse was crucial for the Pantheon's survival: it transformed it into an active church, preventing the abandonment that befell so many other pagan temples. Observe the decoration of the apse's basin: the current Baroque apparatus dates back to interventions commissioned by Pope Clement XI in the 18th century. It is a detail that shows how the Pantheon is a living entity, modified over time yet always respected. Here, Roman architecture, medieval spirituality, and Baroque sensitivity coexist: the apse is the very symbol of cultural and spiritual continuity of the eternal city.

The Main Altar

Before you lies the main altar, the spiritual hub of the Pantheon for over 1400 years. It was here in 609 AD that the pagan temple was consecrated to Santa Maria ad Martyres by Pope Boniface IV, thanks to a donation from the Byzantine Emperor Phocas. This gesture marked a historic turning point: a temple dedicated to all gods became a Christian site. The altar you see today has undergone various interventions over the centuries but continues to harmonize with the original architecture of the building. Its location is far from accidental: it is precisely positioned at the intersection between the entrance and the oculus, forming a symbolic axis that unites earth and sky. Those who celebrate mass here are ideally positioned at the center of the cosmos, under the great dome open towards infinity. The altar's frontal, crafted from precious polychrome marbles, gleams beside the apse behind it, creating a perfect visual balance. For centuries, this space has hosted solemn rites: coronations, weddings, state funerals. Even today, mass is celebrated every Sunday. It is fascinating to think that in the same place where ancient Romans once gazed at the sky, the prayers of Christian faithful now ascend. A dialogue between eras and spiritualties that keeps the Pantheon alive.

The Tomb of Raphael

We are now standing in front of the tomb of Raphael Sanzio, one of the greatest masters of the Italian Renaissance. He died in 1520 at the age of only 37, at the height of his career. Legend has it that he died on his birthday, which fell on Good Friday. His last wish was to be buried here, in the heart of the Pantheon, the place that, more than any other, represents the harmony and perfection he sought with his art. On the tombstone, we read an epitaph written by Pietro Bembo, which reads: "Here lies Raphael, by whom, while he lived, Nature feared to be outdone, and when he died, feared to die with him." Above the tomb, a marble bust created in 1883 by Giuseppe Fabris pays tribute to the master. In 1833, Pope Gregory XVI ordered the opening of the tomb to verify its contents. The remains were identified, and today alongside Raphael rest his betrothed, Maria Bibbiena, and some of his most devoted disciples. This tomb, simple yet powerful in its significance, is an eternal tribute to beauty and art.

The Tomb of Vittorio Emanuele II

We are now facing the tomb of Vittorio Emanuele II, the first king of united Italy. This monument, solemn in its simplicity, marks a new chapter in the history of the Pantheon. After the king’s death in 1878, it was decided to bury him right here, transforming the Roman temple into a national shrine. On the tomb, the inscription PADRE DELLA PATRIA (Father of the Nation) stands out, a title celebrating Vittorio Emanuele’s central role in the Italian unification process. The contrast between the simplicity of the tomb and the grandeur of the building creates an effect of profound solemnity. This was not a random choice: the Pantheon, with its symbolic load of eternity, thus became a bridge between ancient Rome and modern Italy. Other sovereigns of the Savoy dynasty also found their resting place here, transforming the site into a sort of "pantheon" of the monarchy.

The Tomb of Umberto I

We are now standing before the tomb of Umberto I of Savoy, the second king of unified Italy. His burial next to that of his father, Victor Emmanuel II, is not merely a symbolic gesture: it represents the dynastic passing of the baton and underscores the continuity of the monarchy in the young Kingdom of Italy. Umberto I reigned from 1878 to 1900, a period marked by significant changes and intense social tensions. He was nicknamed "the Good," yet his reign was controversial, marked by severe crackdowns, such as those on the popular uprisings in Milan in 1898. On July 29, 1900, his life ended tragically in Monza at the hands of the anarchist Gaetano Bresci. The Pantheon was chosen as his burial site to enshrine the memory of the Savoy family in the heart of the nation, alongside the heroes of the country. Observe his tomb: it is modest, elegant, crafted from fine marbles and adorned with monarchical symbols. Late 19th-century funerary art combines classical solemnity with a more modern style, reflecting the identity of the emerging kingdom. The royal tombs, housed in this ancient pagan temple turned Christian church, add another layer to the Pantheon's complex historical stratification. Here, the ancient and the modern, the sacred and the profane coexist in a unique balance found nowhere else in the world.

The Fountain of the Pantheon

Here we are at the final stop of our itinerary, in the magnificent square that opens up before the Pantheon. At its center stands the Fountain of the Pantheon, one of the most spectacular Baroque fountains in Rome. It was created in 1711 by architect Filippo Barigioni at the behest of Pope Clement XI Albani. Particularly striking is the obelisk that towers above it, known as the Macuteo Obelisk. Approximately six meters high, it is a red granite monolith from the Roman era but crafted in the Egyptian style, likely during the reign of Emperor Domitian. As a symbol of Pharaonic Egypt, the obelisk here gains new meaning, dialoguing with the dome of the Pantheon behind it. The marble basin, with its sinuous shape, is adorned with four sculpted dolphins supporting the central structure. Everything about the fountain speaks the language of the Baroque: theatricality, movement, harmony. It is a perfect example of how Rome has always been able to integrate different cultures, transforming each element into part of a larger narrative. Following various restorations, the last of which took place in 2017, the fountain has been returned to its original splendor. Today, it is one of the most loved spots by visitors: a meeting point, a place of respite, but also a perfect epilogue for the visit. Here, our journey concludes: amid antiquity and Baroque, stone and water, earth and sky.