Palatine Hill: A Tale of the Evolution of Roman Powe

Welcome to the Palatine Hill, the most prestigious hill of ancient Rome and one of the most significant archaeological sites in the world. Prepare yourself for a fascinating journey through imperial residences, sacred temples, and places that tell over a thousand years of history.

Introduction to the Palatine Hill: The Hill of the Caesars

The Palatine Hill is the most central of Rome's seven hills and represents both the legendary and historical cradle of the city. According to tradition, it was here that Romulus founded Rome on April 21, 753 BC, by tracing the sacred furrow that marked the boundaries of the new city and killing his brother Remus for having violated them. During the Republican era, the hill became the site of aristocratic residences. However, it was with Augustus that the Palatine took on a decisive political and symbolic value: the first emperor built his house next to the Temple of Apollo, marking the beginning of the connection between imperial residence and divine power. His successors, from Tiberius to Domitian, transformed the hill into a vast complex of monumental palaces, culminating in the Domus Flavia. Ancient authors recount the magnificence of the imperial feasts: during Nero's banquets, for example, flower petals and perfumes would rain down from the ceiling. Yet alongside this opulence, Romulus's simple hut was periodically reconstructed as a symbol of the city's humble origins. This contrast between simplicity and splendor expressed the dual nature of Rome: its rural roots and imperial ambitions. It is no coincidence that from "Palatium," the Latin name for the hill, comes the modern term "palace." Today, walking on the Palatine Hill is like traversing an authentic palimpsest of history, where every ruin tells the story of the evolution of Roman power.

The Domus Augustana

Welcome to the most private and reserved part of the Imperial Palace on the Palatine: the Domus Augustana. If the Domus Flavia, located slightly higher, was intended for public ceremonies and the representation of power, here we find ourselves in the heart of the emperor's private life. The Domus Augustana was constructed at the behest of Emperor Domitian, between 81 and 92 AD, as part of the grand Palatine renewal project entrusted to architect Rabirius. The residence is spread over two levels: the upper floor, which housed the residential areas and private halls overlooking elegant hanging gardens; and the lower floor, organized around a large central peristyle with porticoes and a spectacular octagonal fountain, parts of which can still be seen today. The floors made of polychrome marble, the wall coverings in alabaster and red porphyry (a material reserved for emperors), are testimonies of refined and symbolic luxury. The decoration of the spaces was not merely aesthetic but served to emphasize the sacredness and authority of the princeps. Ancient sources recount that Domitian was a very reserved and suspicious man: according to Suetonius, he had the habit of walking alone under the porticoes and even had some rooms lined with highly polished stone to see the reflection of whoever was behind him. Despite all his precautions, however, he was killed in 96 AD in a palace conspiracy. In the following decades, the Domus Augustana continued to be inhabited by emperors: it is said that Hadrian enjoyed discussing art and philosophy in the gardens, while Commodus, known for his eccentric character, organized private spectacles with exotic animals, hidden in niches and made to appear suddenly to amaze—or frighten—his guests.

The Temple of Apollo

Welcome to the religious heart of Augustan Rome, where politics and religion merged to create a new symbol of imperial power. Beneath your feet lie the foundations of the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. In 36 B.C., the young Octavian, not yet emperor but already a central figure in the Roman political scene, won the naval battle of Naulochus against Sextus Pompeius. Before the confrontation, he vowed to Apollo, asking for protection and success. Once victory was achieved — and with it control over Sicily — he kept his promise: he had a temple dedicated to the god built right next to his house on the Palatine Hill. But this choice was no accident. Apollo, the Greek god of light, music, medicine, and prophecy, was not a traditionally central deity in the Roman pantheon. Octavian chose him carefully to distinguish himself from Julius Caesar, associated with Venus, and Mark Antony, devoted to Dionysus. By adopting Apollo as his protector, Augustus wanted to present himself as the man of moderation, order, and light, embodying a new era of peace and civilization. The temple, inaugurated in 28 B.C., was constructed of marble, with elegant Corinthian columns, of which today only splendid capitals remain. Besides the cella with the statue of the god, the complex included two libraries — one Latin and one Greek — among the first in Rome open to the public, and frequented by poets like Virgil, Horace, and Propertius, patronized by Augustus's patronage. It was here that the statue of the Cumaean Sibyl, the legendary prophetess, was relocated, and the Sibylline Books, a collection of oracles consulted by the Senate in times of crisis, were kept. This made the temple a veritable prophetic center, closely connected with political power. Today, few visible remains endure: sculpted capitals, bases, and marble fragments. Yet, this place, though now silent, witnessed the birth of the ideology of the principate, which would mark Rome for centuries to come.

The Stadium of Domitian

Welcome to the Stadium of Domitian, one of the best-kept secrets of the Palatine Hill. Don't be misled by the name: it wasn't a stadium in the modern sense, nor an arena for large crowds. Instead, it was a private garden shaped like a hippodrome, built around 85 AD as an integral part of the Domus Flavia, the majestic palace of the emperor. Domitian, known for his love of sports and monumental architecture, designed this space as a sort of "personal garden-stadium," inspired by Hellenistic palaces and Greek gymnasiast porticos. With a length of about 160 meters and a width of 50, it was a place where private athletic games and ceremonial walks could be organized. A colonnaded portico ran along the entire perimeter, with columns made of precious marble and niches adorned with statues of athletes, heroes, and deities. In the center, there was an ornamental garden, now lost. The niches you see along the walls housed statues of athletes and deities, creating an almost sacred atmosphere. What makes this place fascinating is its dual purpose: officially, it was a space for physical activity and games, but in reality, it was a stage where Domitian showcased his power, inviting only the most illustrious guests to share in his leisure activities. After the emperor's assassination in 96 AD, it's said that his successor Nerva deliberately avoided using this space, considering it too closely tied to the memory of the tyrannical predecessor, turning it into more of a symbolic garden than an active space.

The Domus Transitoria

Welcome to the Domus Transitoria, the first major residential project of Emperor Nero on the Palatine Hill. We find ourselves around 54 AD: Nero has just ascended to the throne and already dreams grandly. This residence connected the Palatine with the Esquiline, uniting his properties across multiple hills through a private and continuous path. The name "Transitoria" is no coincidence: it was a transitional home, but for an emperor who never wanted to leave imperial spaces. It was not only about convenience, but also about symbolic control over the urban landscape: Nero intended to traverse Rome as an absolute ruler, without ever mingling with the crowd. In 64 AD, the devastating fire of Rome destroyed the Domus Transitoria. However, it was from those ruins that the opportunity arose for an even more ambitious project: the Domus Aurea. What remains visible today—sophisticated floors in colored marbles, water features, and decorated rooms—offers us a precious glimpse into the luxury and architectural ingenuity of Nero's court.

The Neronian Cryptoporticus

Welcome to one of the most fascinating and lesser-known sites on the Palatine Hill. We find ourselves in the Neronian Cryptoporticus, an ingenious system of underground passageways winding beneath the hill like a secret labyrinth. This long covered corridor, about 130 meters in length, was constructed during Nero's reign, serving as a connection between the Domus Transitoria and other areas of the imperial palace. Not only did it allow for discreet movements sheltered from the weather, but it also provided a cool refuge during the sweltering Roman summers. According to sources, Nero loved to walk through these passages during the hottest hours of the day, often accompanied by his advisors, discussing politics or simply enjoying the tranquility. The walls, mostly bare today, were once adorned with frescoes, marble, and stuccos, some traces of which have been preserved. The rediscovery of the cryptoporticus was almost accidental: in the 19th century, during excavations, a pickaxe accidentally revealed an opening in the ground. Archaeologists were confronted with a true underground labyrinth, hidden for centuries.

Romulus' Hut

Welcome to one of the most symbolic places on the Palatine Hill: the reconstruction of the House of Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome. The ancient Romans revered this simple hut as a sacred relic, preserving it for centuries despite the growing luxury that surrounded it. Imagine, while emperors like Augustus lived in lavish palaces just a stone's throw away, this humble structure continued to be protected and restored as a symbol of the modest beginnings of the eternal city. Historical sources tell us that during festivals, priests would decorate the door with garlands, paying homage to the starting point of Roman history. What you see today is a reconstruction based on ancient descriptions, particularly those of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Vitruvius: a round hut, with walls made of mud and wicker covered by a thatched roof. Interestingly, it is said that during the great fire of Rome in 64 AD, Nero watched the flames while singing verses about the fall of Troy, just as this hut was also burning. Archaeological investigations have confirmed the presence of dwellings in this area dating back to the 8th century BC, consistent with the legend.

The Temple of Magna Mater

The Temple of Magna Mater, dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele, was one of the first examples of the integration of an Eastern cult into the heart of Rome. Its introduction in 204 BC, during the height of the Second Punic War, was motivated by a prophecy contained in the Sibylline Books, which stated that only the arrival of the goddess could ensure the city's salvation from Hannibal's threat. A black stone, an aniconic symbol of the deity, was transported from Pessinus in Asia Minor to Rome. The legend of Claudia Quinta, a Vestal Virgin unjustly accused of impurity, who proved her innocence by pulling the stranded ship to the shores of the Tiber, became an integral part of the temple’s foundational myth. Built on the Palatine Hill, the temple occupied a highly symbolic position, between the House of Romulus and the future Domus Tiberiana, signifying the importance that the cult of Magna Mater assumed in the Roman religious and political context. Although initially viewed with suspicion due to its ecstatic rites, celebrated by eunuch priests known as Galli, the cult was gradually assimilated. The most important ceremonies, the Megalesia, included sacrifices, frenzied dances, music, and theatrical performances, involving both the Roman nobility and the common people. Augustus restored the temple after the fire in 3 AD, as part of his broader project of religious and urban renewal. The visible remains today tell not only of the presence of a sacred building but also of Rome's ability to absorb foreign cults, transforming them into instruments of imperial cohesion and legitimacy.

The House of the Griffins

Welcome to the House of the Griffins, one of the best-preserved treasures of Republican Rome, hidden beneath the imperial structures of the Palatine Hill. This domus, or ancient Roman house, derives its name from the stucco decorations featuring griffins, visible in one of the vaults. These mythical creatures, half lion and half eagle, were associated in the Greco-Roman world with royalty, strength, and protection. The frescoed walls belong to the Second Pompeian Style, popular from 80 to 20 BC, characterized by painted perspectives and optical illusions to simulate architecture and open spaces. Here, one can still observe columns, pediments, and imaginary landscapes painted with great refinement, and with intense colors such as ochre, Pompeian red, and Egyptian blue, remarkably preserved over more than two millennia. During the excavations of 1912, led by Alfonso Bartoli, these semi-underground rooms were unearthed, protected by the accumulated imperial structures above. Documented finds include everyday objects, among which were fragments of fine pottery and small artifacts, providing a snapshot of pre-imperial domestic life. Today, the House of the Griffins stands as one of the most complete examples of an aristocratic domus from the Republican period, valuable for having survived the monumentalization of the Palatine under the emperors. It offers a rare glimpse into a time when power in Rome was not yet centralized in a single individual, but circulated among the great patrician families.

The Domus Flavia

Welcome to the Domus Flavia, the magnificent public residence of Emperor Domitian, built between 81 and 85 AD based on a design by the architect Rabirius. This section of the vast imperial palace on the Palatine Hill was dedicated to official functions: audiences, ceremonies, state banquets, and receptions. It was the administrative and representative heart of imperial power. The entire complex was conceived to convey grandeur, control, and authority. The architecture, strictly axial and symmetrical, guided visitors along a meticulously designed route to impress and psychologically dominate. The spaces became progressively grander as one approached the emperor. The centerpiece of the Domus Flavia was the Aula Regia, or Throne Room, a grand space adorned with fine marbles sourced from across the Roman Empire. Domitian received ambassadors and foreign dignitaries there, sitting on an elevated throne that dominated the room. His intent was clear: to stage the deification of the emperor, depicted as an absolute ruler. At the heart of the courtyard was the Lararium, dedicated to the Lares and the cult of the imperial family, a fundamental element of the state religion, which helped to reinforce the emperor's sanctity. Adjacent to it, the large dining hall, the Triclinium, could host solemn banquets, with ceremonies that followed strictly regulated protocols. Another significant area was the Basilica, used for judicial activities: here, the emperor sat as the supreme judge. The building, with its central nave flanked by columns of Numidian marble and niches for statues, was a tribute to the majesty of imperial justice. Some ancient sources describe Domitian as particularly suspicious and solitary. Although there is no direct archaeological evidence, Cassius Dio and Suetonius recount that the emperor had some rooms decorated with reflective materials — such as polished marbles or metallic mirrors — to monitor who moved behind him, a sign of his growing paranoia in the later years of his reign. The Domus Flavia is an emblematic example of how architecture could become a tool of political propaganda.

The Elagabalium

Here we are at the Elagabalium, a sanctuary constructed on the Palatine Hill by Emperor Elagabalus (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), who reigned from 218 to 222 AD. He was among the most controversial and youngest rulers of the Roman Empire. Born in Emesa (modern-day Homs, Syria), Elagabalus was the high priest of the god El-Gabal, a local solar deity. Upon arriving in Rome, he brought with him a conical black stone, probably a meteorite revered as a physical manifestation of the god, which he had placed here in the temple he built on the highest point of the Palatine. Ancient sources portray Elagabalus as an eccentric and sacrilegious ruler. He attempted to impose the cult of Sol Invictus Elagabalus as the dominant religion of the Empire, transferring the main symbols of the traditional Roman gods (including the Black Stone of Magna Mater, the fire of Vesta, and the martial ancilia) to his temple. This act was interpreted as an intolerable subordination of Jupiter and the traditional deities to an Eastern god. The religious celebrations were likely inspired by Syrian rituals and included processions, music, sacred dances, and Oriental ritual garments. Elagabalus was assassinated at just 18 years old during a conspiracy by the Praetorian Guard, and the damnatio memoriae decreed after his death helped to exacerbate the negative accounts about him. After his killing, the Elagabalium was dedicated to Jupiter Ultor by Alexander Severus, marking a return to religious orthodoxy.

The Domus Tiberiana

The Domus Tiberiana represents the first true example of an imperial palace in Rome, located in the northwestern part of the Palatine Hill. It was built in the 1st century A.D. at the behest of Tiberius, the successor of Augustus, marking a crucial moment in the history of Roman architecture: for the first time, a building was conceived not only as a private residence but as an institutional and symbolic seat of imperial power. The term "palace" itself derives from "Palatium," named after the hill on which it stands. Tiberius, known for his reserved and cautious nature, chose this strategic position overlooking both the Roman Forum and the Circus Maximus, two central hubs of political and social life in the capital. It is documented that there were elevated or underground passages connecting the Domus to the Forum and other key points in the city, probably used for reasons of security and confidentiality. The palace was expanded by Caligula, who extended the structure up to the Temple of Castor and Pollux in the Roman Forum, an act that demonstrates the growing interconnection between the sacred sphere and imperial power. Caligula went so far as to use part of the temple as a vestibule to his palace, and some sources recount episodes where he would interact with the crowd in a theatrical manner. In subsequent centuries, the Domus Tiberiana was integrated into later complexes – Domus Transitoria, Domus Aurea, Domus Flavia – evolving into a single palatial structure covering the entire hill. The impressive substructures visible today, built using a mixed technique of opus reticulatum and brickwork, were used to create large artificial terraces: a masterpiece of engineering that enabled the progressive monumentalization of the Palatine as the permanent center of imperial power.

The Domus Augustea

The Domus Augustea, located on the southwestern slope of the Palatine Hill, was the private residence of Octavian Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome. His decision to live in a seemingly modest house, rather than a sumptuous palace, was a conscious political move: Augustus wanted to distance himself from the image of monarchy, which was still unpopular among Romans after the era of the kings. While presenting himself as princeps, or "first among equals," his authority was firmly imperial, and his residence—though austere—became the symbolic model of imperial power. The house was directly connected to the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, inaugurated in 28 BC, which stood next door. This connection between residence and temple strengthened the union between political power and religious dimension, a distinctive trait of the Augustan regime. Inside the domus, sophisticated frescoes belonging to the so-called Second Pompeian Style are still visible, featuring mythological decorations that subtly yet effectively alluded to the association between Augustus and the deities. After his death in 14 AD, the house was preserved as a public monument and became a place of pilgrimage, testifying to the devotion towards him. This building profoundly influenced the urban planning and symbolism of power: for centuries, subsequent emperors chose the Palatine as their official residence. Today, the Domus Augustea is partially visible thanks to excavations conducted beneath the area of the Farnese Gardens, representing the starting point of the monumentalization of the Palatine as the center of Roman imperial power.

House of Livia

The House of Livia, located on the northwest slope of the Palatine Hill, is attributed to Livia Drusilla, wife of Emperor Augustus. Livia was a prominent political figure, known for her influence on imperial decisions and dynastic succession. Ancient sources credit her with a decisive role in her son Tiberius's rise to the throne, fueling rumors that she orchestrated poisonings within the imperial family to ensure succession. The domus is especially renowned for its extraordinary frescoes, dating back to the late 1st century BC and perfectly preserved due to their semi-buried position. The paintings, belonging to the Second Pompeian Style, particularly adorn the triclinium, or dining room, with illusionistic representations of lush gardens, painted architectural elements, and mythological scenes that reflect the taste and culture of the mistress of the house. These decorations were not purely aesthetic: they alluded to themes of prosperity, fertility, and order, perfectly aligning with the public image that Livia and the Augustan house aimed to project. The house, now visible thanks to a complex restoration effort, offers a rare glimpse into the private life of the imperial elite.

The Lupercal Cave

The Lupercale was a sacred cave located at the foot of the Palatine Hill, traditionally identified as the place where the she-wolf is said to have nursed Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome. This space, transformed into a sanctuary already in archaic times, was one of the symbolic focal points of Roman religiosity connected to the city's origins. The celebrations associated with this location culminated in the Lupercalia, festivals of purification and fertility held every February 15th. The first emperor, Octavian Augustus, showed great interest in the Lupercale, not only by restoring the sanctuary but also by incorporating it into his own policy of dynastic legitimation. By invoking the foundational myth and participating in the Lupercalia, Augustus reinforced his connection with Romulus, crediting himself as a refounder of Rome. This aspect was further emphasized by the sanctuary's proximity to his residence on the Palatine. In 2007, Italian archaeologists announced the possible discovery of the Lupercale beneath the House of Augustus: a hall decorated with mosaics, stucco, and seashells, dating back to the Augustan era. The identification is still debated, but the structure confirms the importance of this area in the imperial period, where archaic sacredness and imperial propaganda overlap.